How Do You Refer to Curvy Lines in Art

Line

A line is defined as a marker that connects the space between two points, taking any form along the way.

Learning Objectives

Compare and contrast different uses of line in art

Fundamental Takeaways

Key Points

• Actual lines are lines that are physically present, existing as solid connections between one or more points.
• Implied line refers to the path that the viewer 'southward eye takes as it follows shapes, colors, and forms forth any given path.
• Southwardtraight or classic lines provide stability and construction to a composition and can be vertical, horizontal, or diagonal on a piece of work'south surface.
• Expressive lines refer to curved marks that increase the sense of dynamism of a work of art.
• The outline or profile lines create a border or path around the border of a shape, thereby outlining and defining it. "Cross contour lines" delineate differences in the features of a surface.
• Hatch lines are a series of short lines repeated in intervals, typically in a single management, and are used to add shading and texture to surfaces, while cross-hatch lines provide boosted texture and tone to the epitome surface and can be oriented in any direction.

Key Terms

• texture:The feel or shape of a surface or substance; the smoothness, roughness, softness, etc. of something.
• cross-hatching:A method of showing shading by means of multiple modest lines that intersect.
• line:A path through two or more points.

The line is an essential chemical element of art, divers as a mark that connects the space between two points, taking any form along the way. Lines are used virtually often to define shape in 2-dimensional works and could be chosen the most ancient, every bit well every bit the most universal, forms of mark making.

In that location are many different types of lines, all characterized past their lengths being greater than their width, as well every bit by the paths that they take. Depending on how they are used, lines help to determine the motion, direction, and energy of a work of art. The quality of a line refers to the grapheme that is presented past a line in lodge to animate a surface to varying degrees.

Actual lines are lines that are physically present, existing as solid connections betwixt 1 or more points, while implied lines refer to the path that the viewer'south eye takes equally information technology follows shape, color, and grade within an art work. Implied lines give works of art a sense of motion and proceed the viewer engaged in a composition. We can meet numerous implied lines in Jacques-Louis David'due south Adjuration of the Horatii, connecting the figures and deportment of the piece past leading the heart of the viewer through the unfolding drama.

Jacques-Louis David, Oath of the Horatii, 1784: Many unsaid lines connect the figures and action of the piece by leading the heart of the viewer through the unfolding drama.

Straight or classic lines add stability and structure to a composition and tin be vertical, horizontal, or diagonal on the surface of the piece of work. Expressive lines refer to curved marks that increment the sense of dynamism of a piece of work of art. These types of lines oftentimes follow an undetermined path of sinuous curves. The outline or contour lines create a border or path around the border of a shape, thereby outlining and defining it. Cross contour lines delineate differences in the features of a surface and can give the illusion of three dimensions or a sense of form or shading.

Hatch lines are a series of short lines repeated in intervals, typically in a single direction, and are used to add shading and texture to surfaces. Cross-hatch lines provide additional texture and tone to the epitome surface and can be oriented in any direction. Layers of cross-hatching can add rich texture and volume to image surfaces.

Light and Value

Value refers to the use of light and dark in art.

Learning Objectives

Explicate the artistic employ of light and dark (too known as "value")

Cardinal Takeaways

Key Points

• In painting, value changes are accomplished by adding blackness or white to a colour.
• Value in art is also sometimes referred to equally " tint " for low-cal hues and "shade" for dark hues.
• Values near the lighter terminate of the spectrum are termed "high-keyed" while those on the darker end are chosen "low-keyed."
• In two-dimensional art works, the use of value can help to requite a shape the illusion of mass or book .
• Chiaroscuro was a common technique in Baroque painting and refers to articulate tonal contrasts exemplified past very high-keyed whites, placed directly against very low-keyed darks.

Fundamental Terms

• chiaroscuro:An artistic technique popularized during the Renaissance, referring to the use of exaggerated light contrasts in society to create the illusion of volume.

The use of calorie-free and nighttime in art is called value. Value can be subdivided into tint (light hues) and shade (dark hues). In painting, which uses subtractive color, value changes are achieved by adding black or white to a color. Artists may also employ shading, which refers to a more subtle manipulation of value. The value scale is used to prove the standard variations in tones . Values nearly the lighter finish of the spectrum are termed high-keyed, while those on the darker end are low-keyed.

Value scale: The value scale represents different degrees of lite used in artwork.

In two-dimensional artworks, the use of value can help to give a shape the illusion of mass or volume. It will too give the entire composition a sense of lighting. High dissimilarity refers to the placing of lighter areas directly confronting much darker ones, so their difference is showcased, creating a dramatic issue. High contrast besides refers to the presence of more blacks than white or grey. Low-contrast images result from placing mid-range values together so there is not much visible difference between them, creating a more subtle mood.

In Baroque painting, the technique of chiaroscuro was used to produce highly dramatic furnishings in art. Chiaroscuro, which means literally "light-dark" in Italian, refers to clear tonal contrasts exemplified by very high-keyed whites, placed directly confronting very low-keyed darks. Candlelit scenes were common in Baroque painting every bit they effectively produced this dramatic type of effect. Caravaggio used a high contrast palette in such works every bit The Denial of St. Peter to create his expressive chiaroscuro scene.

Caravaggio, The Denial of St. Peter, 1610: Caravaggio's The Deprival of St. Peter is an fantabulous case of how light can be manipulated in artwork.

Color

In the visual arts, color theory is a body of practical guidance to color mixing and the visual impacts of specific color combinations.

Learning Objectives

Express the most of import elements of colour theory and artists' utilise of colour

Key Takeaways

Primal Points

• Colour theory starting time appeared in the 17th century, when Isaac Newton discovered that white low-cal could be passed through a prism and divided into the full spectrum of colors.
• The spectrum of colors contained in white light are red, orange, yellowish, green, blueish, indigo , and violet.
• Color theory divides color into the " primary colors " of red, yellow, and blueish, which cannot exist mixed from other pigments, and the "secondary colors" of green, orangish, and violet, which result from different combinations of the chief colors.
• Primary and secondary colors are combined in various mixtures to create tertiary colors.
• Complementary colors are found opposite each other on the colour wheel and represent the strongest contrast for those particular two colors.

Key Terms

• complementary colour:A color which is regarded as the contrary of another on the color wheel (i.e., red and light-green, yellow and purple, and orange and blue).
• value:The relative darkness or lightness of a color in a specific area of a painting or other visual art.
• primary color:Any of three colors which, when added to or subtracted from others in dissimilar amounts, tin can generate all other colors.
• tint:A color considered with reference to other very similar colors. Red and blue are different colors, but two shades of ruddy are unlike tints.
• gradation:A passing past modest degrees from one tone or shade, as of color, to another.
• hue:A color, or shade of colour.

Color is a cardinal artistic element which refers to the utilise of hue in art and pattern. Information technology is the most complex of the elements because of the wide array of combinations inherent to it. Color theory offset appeared in the 17th century when Isaac Newton discovered that white low-cal could be passed through a prism and divided into the full spectrum of colors. The spectrum of colors contained in white light are, in order: crimson, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo and violet.

Color theory subdivides color into the "primary colors" of ruby-red, yellow, and blue, which cannot exist mixed from other pigments; and the "secondary colors" of green, orangish and violet, which result from dissimilar combinations of the primary colors. Principal and secondary colors are combined in various mixtures to create "third colors." Color theory is centered effectually the color cycle, a diagram that shows the human relationship of the various colors to each other .

Color wheel: The color cycle is a diagram that shows the human relationship of the various colors to each other.

Colour " value " refers to the relative lightness or darkness of a color. In add-on, "tint" and "shade" are of import aspects of color theory and issue from lighter and darker variations in value, respectively. "Tone" refers to the gradation or subtle changes of a color on a lighter or darker scale. "Saturation" refers to the intensity of a color.

Condiment and Subtractive Colour

Additive colour is color created by mixing cerise, greenish, and bluish lights. Television screens, for example, use additive color as they are fabricated upwardly of the master colors of carmine, blue and dark-green (RGB). Subtractive color,  or "process color," works equally the reverse of additive color and the master colors go cyan, magenta, yellow, and black (CMYK). Mutual applications of subtractive colour can be establish in press and photography.

Complementary Color

Complementary colors can exist institute direct reverse each other on the color cycle (royal and yellow, dark-green and red, orange and blue). When placed next to each other, these pairs create the strongest contrast for those particular two colors.

Warm and Cool Colour

The stardom between warm and absurd colors has been important since at least the late 18th century. The contrast, as traced by etymologies in the Oxford English Dictionary, seems related to the observed contrast in landscape light, between the "warm" colors associated with daylight or sunset and the "cool" colors associated with a gray or overcast day. Warm colors are the hues from scarlet through xanthous, browns and tans included. Absurd colors, on the other mitt, are the hues from bluish green through blue violet, with most grays included. Color theory has described perceptual and psychological effects to this contrast. Warm colors are said to advance or announced more agile in a painting, while cool colors tend to recede. Used in interior design or manner, warm colors are said to agitate or stimulate the viewer , while absurd colors calm and relax.

Texture

Texture refers to the tactile quality of the surface of an art object.

Learning Objectives

Recognize the use of texture in art

Key Takeaways

Primal Points

• Visual texture refers to an implied sense of texture that the artist creates through the use of various artistic elements such as line , shading, and color.
• Actual texture refers to the physical rendering or the real surface qualities nosotros can notice by touching an object.
• Visible brushstrokes and different amounts of paint will create a concrete texture that tin can add to the expressiveness of a painting and draw attention to specific areas inside it.
• Information technology is possible for an artwork to contain numerous visual textures but still remain smooth to the touch.

Key Terms

• tactile:Tangible; perceptible to the sense of touch.

Texture

Texture in art stimulates the senses of sight and touch and refers to the tactile quality of the surface of the art. Information technology is based on the perceived texture of the canvas or surface, which includes the application of the paint. In the context of artwork, there are 2 types of texture: visual and actual. Visual texture refers to an unsaid sense of texture that the creative person creates through the utilize of various creative elements such every bit line, shading and color. Actual texture refers to the physical rendering or the existent surface qualities we can notice by touching an object, such equally pigment application or iii-dimensional fine art.

It is possible for an artwork to contain numerous visual textures, notwithstanding withal remain smoothen to the bear on. Take for instance Realist or Illusionist works, which rely on the heavy use of paint and varnish, yet maintain an utterly shine surface. In January Van Eyck'due south painting "The Virgin of Chancellor Rolin" we can detect a peachy deal of texture in the clothing and robes especially, while the surface of the work remains very smooth .

Jan van Eyck, The Virgin of Chancellor Rolin, 1435: The Virgin of Chancellor Rolin has a great deal of texture in the clothing and robes, but the actual surface of the work is very smooth.

Paintings oft utilize actual texture equally well, which we can detect in the physical application of paint. Visible brushstrokes and different amounts of paint will create a texture that adds to the expressiveness of a painting and draw attending to specific areas within it. The artist Vincent van Gogh is known to have used a smashing deal of bodily texture in his paintings, noticeable in the thick application of paint in such paintings equally Starry Night.

Vincent van Gogh, The Starry Night, 1889: The Starry Nighttime contains a great deal of actual texture through the thick awarding of paint.

Shape and Volume

Shape refers to an expanse in a two-dimensional infinite that is defined by edges; book is three-dimensional, exhibiting acme, width, and depth.

Learning Objectives

Define shape and book and place means they are represented in art

Key Takeaways

Fundamental Points

• "Positive space " refers to the infinite of the divers shape or figure.
• "Negative space" refers to the infinite that exists around and between one or more shapes.
• A " plane " in art refers to any surface surface area within space.
• " Form " is a concept that is related to shape and can be created by combining two or more shapes, resulting in a three-dimensional shape.
• Fine art makes use of both actual and unsaid volume .
• Shape, book, and space, whether bodily or implied, are the basis of the perception of reality.

Primal Terms

• form:The shape or visible construction of an creative expression.
• book:A unit of three-dimensional mensurate of space that comprises a length, a width, and a pinnacle.
• plane:A flat surface extending infinitely in all directions (e.g., horizontal or vertical airplane).

Shape refers to an area in two-dimensional space that is defined by edges. Shapes are, past definition, always flat in nature and tin can be geometric (e.m., a circumvolve, square, or pyramid) or organic (e.chiliad., a leaf or a chair). Shapes tin can be created past placing two dissimilar textures , or shape-groups, next to each other, thereby creating an enclosed area, such every bit a painting of an object floating in water.

"Positive space" refers to the space of the defined shape, or figure. Typically, the positive infinite is the subject of an artwork. "Negative space" refers to the space that exists around and between one or more shapes. Positive and negative space can become difficult to distinguish from each other in more than abstruse works.

A "airplane" refers to any surface expanse within space. In two-dimensional fine art, the " picture aeroplane " is the flat surface that the image is created upon, such every bit paper, canvas, or forest. Iii-dimensional figures may exist depicted on the flat picture airplane through the use of the artistic elements to imply depth and book, every bit seen in the painting Small Bouquet of Flowers in a Ceramic Vase by Jan Brueghel the Elderberry.

Jan Brueghel the Elder, Small Bouquet of Flowers in a Ceramic Vase, 1599: Three-dimensional figures may be depicted on the apartment motion-picture show airplane through the utilize of the artistic elements to imply depth and book.

"Course" is a concept that is related to shape. Combining two or more shapes tin create a three-dimensional shape. Class is e'er considered 3-dimensional as it exhibits volume—or height, width, and depth. Fine art makes use of both actual and unsaid book.

While three-dimensional forms, such equally sculpture, have volume inherently, book tin also be simulated, or implied, in a two-dimensional work such equally a painting. Shape, volume, and space—whether actual or unsaid—are the ground of the perception of reality.

Fourth dimension and Movement

Motion, a principle of art, is a tool artists use to organize the creative elements in a work; it is employed in both static and time-based mediums.

Learning Objectives

Name some techniques and mediums used by artists to convey motility in both static and time-based fine art forms

Cardinal Takeaways

Key Points

• Techniques such as calibration and proportion are used to create the feeling of motility or the passing of time in static a visual piece.
• The placement of a repeated element in dissimilar surface area within an artwork is another way to imply motility and the passing of time.
• Visual experiments in time and motion were outset produced in the mid-19th century, and the photographer Eadweard Muybridge is well-known for his sequential shots.
• The time-based mediums of film, video, kinetic sculpture , and operation art employ time and motion by their very definitions.

Key Terms

• frames per second:The number of times an imaging device produces unique consecutive images (frames) in one second. Abbreviation: FPS.
• static:Fixed in place; having no motion.

Motion, or move, is considered to be one of the "principles of fine art"; that is, i of the tools artists use to organize the creative elements in a piece of work of art. Motion is employed in both static and in time-based mediums and can show a direct action or the intended path for the viewer 's eye to follow through a slice.

Techniques such as scale and proportion are used to create the feeling of motion or the passing of time in static visual artwork. For example, on a flat pic plane , an epitome that is smaller and lighter colored than its surroundings will appear to exist in the background. Another technique for implying motility and/or fourth dimension is the placement of a repeated element in unlike areas within an artwork.

Visual experiments in time and motion were beginning produced in the mid-19th century. The photographer Eadweard Muybridge is well known for his sequential shots of humans and animals walking, running, and jumping, which he displayed together to illustrate the motion of his subjects. Marcel Duchamp's Nude Descending a Staircase, No. 2 exemplifies an absolute feeling of motility from the upper left to lower correct corner of the piece.

Marcel Duchamp, Nude Descending a Staircase, No. 2, 1912: This work represents Duchamp'due south conception of motion and time.

While static art forms take the ability to imply or suggest time and movement, the time-based mediums of motion-picture show, video, kinetic sculpture, and performance art demonstrate time and motion past their very definitions. Motion-picture show is many static images that are chop-chop passed through a lens. Video is essentially the same process, just digitally-based and with fewer frames per second . Performance art takes place in real time and makes use of real people and objects, much like theater. Kinetic fine art is art that moves, or depends on movement, for its consequence. All of these mediums use time and motion equally a primal aspect of their forms of expression.

Chance, Improvisation, and Spontaneity

Dadaism, Surrealism, and the Fluxus motility all relied on the elements of chance, improvisation, and spontaneity equally tools for making art works.

Learning Objectives

Describe how Dadaism, Surrealism, and the Fluxus motility relied on risk, improvisation, and spontaneity

Key Takeaways

Central Points

• Dadaists are known for their "automatic writing" or stream of consciousness writing, which highlights the creativity of the unconscious mind.
• Surrealist works, much like Dadaist works, ofttimes characteristic an element of surprise, unexpected juxtaposition , and tapping into the unconscious heed.
• Surrealists are known for having invented " exquisite corpse" drawing.
• The Fluxus movement was known for its " happenings ," which were functioning events or situations that could take identify anywhere, in any form , and relied heavily on chance, improvisation, and audience participation.

Fundamental Terms

• happening:A spontaneous or improvised event, peculiarly i that involves audience participation.
• assemblage:A collection of things which have been gathered together..

Chance, improvisation, and spontaneity are elements that can be used to create art, or they can exist the very purpose of the artwork itself. Any medium can employ these elements at any betoken within the artistic procedure.

Marcel Duchamp, Urinal, 1917: Marcel Duchamp's Urinal is an example of a "ready-fabricated," which were objects that were purchased or establish and and then declared art.

Dadaism

Dadaism was an art motility popular in Europe in the early 20th century. It was started by artists and poets in Zurich, Switzerland with strong anti-war and left-leaning sentiments. The movement rejected logic and reason and instead prized irrationality, nonsense, and intuition. Marcel Duchamp was a dominant member of the Dadaist motion, known for exhibiting "prepare-mades," which were objects that were purchased or plant and then alleged art.

Dadaists used what was readily available to create what was termed an "assemblage," using items such as photographs, trash, stickers, motorbus passes, and notes. The work of the Dadaists involved chance, improvisation, and spontaneity to create fine art. They are known for using "automatic writing" or stream of consciousness writing, which often took nonsensical forms, but allowed for the opportunity of potentially surprising juxtapositions and unconscious inventiveness.

Surrealism

The Surrealist motion, which developed out of Dadaism primarily every bit a political motility, featured an element of surprise, unexpected juxtaposition and the borer of the unconscious mind. Andre Breton, an important fellow member of the move, wrote the Surrealist manifesto, defining it every bit follows:

"Surrealism, n. Pure psychic automatism , past which one proposes to express, either verbally, in writing, or by any other manner, the real functioning of idea. Dictation of thought in the absenteeism of all control exercised by reason, outside of all artful and moral preoccupation. "

Similar Dadaism before it, the Surrealist motion stressed the unimportance of reason and planning and instead relied heavily upon risk and surprise as a tool to harness the inventiveness of the unconscious mind. Surrealists are known for having invented "exquisite corpse" drawing, an exercise where words and images are collaboratively assembled, one after another. Many Surrealist techniques, including exquisite corpse cartoon, immune for the playful creation of art through assigning value to spontaneous production.

The Fluxus move

The Fluxus movement of the 1960s was highly influenced by Dadaism. Fluxus was an international network of artists that skillfully blended together many different disciplines, and whose piece of work was characterized by the use of an farthermost do-it-yourself (DIY) aesthetic and heavily intermedia artworks. In improver, Fluxus was known for its "happenings," which were multi-disciplinary performance events or situations that could take identify anywhere. Audience participation was essential in a happening, and therefore relied on a bang-up bargain of surprise and improvisation. Key elements of happenings were often planned, but artists left room for improvisation, which eliminated the boundary betwixt the artwork and the viewer , thus making the audition an of import part of the art.

Inclusion of All 5 Senses

The inclusion of the five man senses in a single work takes identify nigh often in installation and performance fine art.

Learning Objectives

Explain how installation and performance art include the v senses of the viewer

Primal Takeaways

Key Points

• In contemporary art, it is quite mutual for work to cater to the senses of sight, bear upon, and hearing, while information technology is somewhat less common to accost smell and taste.
• "Gesamtkunstwerk," or "total piece of work of art," is a German discussion that refers to an artwork that attempts to address all v human senses.
• Installation fine art is a genre of three-dimensional artwork that is designed to transform the viewer 'southward perception of a space .
• Virtual reality is a term that refers to estimator-simulated environments.

Key Terms

• happening:A spontaneous or improvised issue, particularly one that involves audience participation.
• virtual reality:A reality based in the calculator.

The inclusion of the five human senses in a unmarried work takes place near often in installation and operation-based art. In addition, works that strive to include all senses at in one case by and large make use of some course of interactivity, as the sense of taste clearly must involve the participation of the viewer. Historically, this attending to all senses was reserved to ritual and ceremony . In gimmicky art, it is quite common for work to cater to the senses of sight, touch, and hearing, while somewhat less common for fine art to address the senses of smell and taste.

The German give-and-take "Gesamtkunstwerk," meaning "total work of art," refers to a genre of artwork that attempts to address all five human senses. The concept was brought to prominence by the German opera composer Richard Wagner in 1849. Wagner staged an opera that sought to unite the art forms, which he felt had get overly disparate. Wagner's operas paid bully attention to every detail in order to attain a state of total artistic immersion. "Gesamkunstwerk" is now an accepted English term relating to aesthetics , only has evolved from Wagner'south definition to mean the inclusion of the five senses in art.

Installation art is a genre of iii-dimensional artwork that is designed to transform the viewer's perception of a space. Embankment past Rachel Whiteread exemplifies this type of transformation. The term generally pertains to an interior space, while Country Fine art typically refers to an outdoor space, though at that place is some overlap between these terms. The Fluxus motion of the 1960s is cardinal to the evolution of installation and performance art as mediums.

Rachel Whiteread, Embankment, 2005: Whiteread's installation Embankment is a type of fine art designed to transform the viewer'due south perception of space.

"Virtual reality" is a term that refers to reckoner-fake environments. Currently, most virtual reality environments are visual experiences, but some simulations include additional sensory information. Immersive virtual reality has developed in recent years with the improvement of applied science and is increasingly addressing the five senses within a virtual realm. Artists have been exploring the possibilities of these simulated and virtual realities with the expansion of the discipline of cyberarts, though what constitutes cyberart continues to be up for debate. Environments such as the virtual world of Second Life are generally accepted, merely whether or not video games should be considered fine art remains undecided.

Compositional Balance

Compositional residue refers to the placement of the artistic elements in relation to each other within a work of art.

Learning Objectives

Categorize the elements of compositional rest in a work of art

Cardinal Takeaways

Key Points

• A harmonious compositional balance involves arranging elements then that no one part of a work overpowers or seems heavier than any other part.
• The three well-nigh common types of compositional residuum are symmetrical, asymmetrical, and radial .
• When balanced, a composition appears stable and visually right. Only as symmetry relates to aesthetic preference and reflects an intuitive sense for how things "should" appear, the overall balance of a given limerick contributes to exterior judgments of the piece of work.

Key Terms

• radial:Arranged like rays that radiate from, or converge to, a common center.
• symmetry:Exact correspondence on either side of a dividing line, aeroplane, center, or centrality. The satisfying arrangement of a balanced distribution of the elements of a whole.
• asymmetry:Want of symmetry, or proportion betwixt the parts of a thing, especially want of bilateral symmetry. Defective a mutual mensurate between two objects or quantities; Incommensurability. That which causes something to not be symmetrical.

Compositional balance refers to the placement of the elements of art (color, course , line , shape, space , texture , and value) in relation to each other. When counterbalanced, a composition appears more than stable and visually pleasing. Just as symmetry relates to aesthetic preference and reflects an intuitive sense for how things "should" announced, the overall balance of a given composition contributes to outside judgments of the work.

Creating a harmonious compositional balance involves arranging elements so that no unmarried office of a work overpowers or seems heavier than any other part. The three most common types of compositional residual are symmetrical, asymmetrical, and radial.

Compositional balance: The three common types of balance are symmetric, disproportionate, and radial.

Symmetrical residue is the nearly stable, in a visual sense, and generally conveys a sense of harmonious or aesthetically pleasing proportionality. When both sides of an artwork on either side of the horizontal or vertical axis of the pic plane are the same in terms of the sense that is created past the organization of the elements of art, the work is said to exhibit this type of remainder. The opposite of symmetry is asymmetry .

Leonardo da Vinci, Vitruvian Man, 1487: Leonardo da Vinci's Vitruvian Human being is oftentimes used equally a representation of symmetry in the man body and, by extension, the natural universe.

Asymmetry is defined as the absence of, or a violation of, the principles of symmetry. Examples of asymmetry appear commonly in compages. Although pre-modern architectural styles tended to identify an emphasis on symmetry (except where extreme site conditions or historical developments lead abroad from this classical ideal), modern and postmodern architects oftentimes used asymmetry as a design element. For instance, while most bridges employ a symmetrical form due to intrinsic simplicities of design, assay, fabrication, and economical use of materials, a number of modern bridges have deliberately departed from this, either in response to site-specific considerations or to create a dramatic design argument. .

Oakland Bay Span: Eastern span replacement of the San Francisco–Oakland Bay Span reflects asymmetrical architectural design.

Radial residue refers to circular elements in compositions. In classical geometry, a radius of a circumvolve or sphere is any line segment from its center to its perimeter. By extension, the radius of a circle or sphere is the length of any such segment, which is one-half the diameter. The radius may be more than half the diameter, which is usually divers equally the maximum distance between any 2 points of the figure. The inradius of a geometric figure is usually the radius of the largest circle or sphere contained in information technology. The inner radius of a ring, tube or other hollow object is the radius of its crenel. The name "radial" or "radius" comes from Latin radius, meaning "ray" but also the spoke of a circular chariot wheel.

Rhythm

Artists use rhythm as a tool to guide the eye of the viewer through works of art.

Learning Objectives

Recognize and translate the use of rhythm in a piece of work of art

Primal Takeaways

Primal Points

• Rhythm may be by and large divers as a "movement marked past the regulated succession of stiff and weak elements, or of opposite or unlike conditions" (Anon. 1971).
• Rhythm may also refer to visual presentation as "timed movement through infinite " (Jirousek 1995), and a common linguistic communication of pattern unites rhythm with geometry.
• For instance, placing a red screw at the bottom left and elevation right, for instance, will cause the eye to move from one screw, to the other, and everything in betwixt. It is indicating motion in the piece by the repetition of elements and, therefore, tin brand artwork seem active.

Key Terms

• symmetry:Verbal correspondence on either side of a dividing line, plane, center or axis. The satisfying arrangement of a balanced distribution of the elements of a whole.

The principles of visual fine art are the rules, tools, and guidelines that artists use to organize the elements of in a piece of artwork. When the principles and elements are successfully combined, they aid in creating an aesthetically pleasing or interesting work of art. While there is some variation among them, movement, unity, harmony, variety, balance, rhythm, accent, dissimilarity , proportion, and pattern are commonly sited as principles of art.

Rhythm (from Greek rhythmos, "any regular recurring motility, symmetry " (Liddell and Scott 1996)) may be generally defined as a "movement marked by the regulated succession of strong and weak elements, or of opposite or different conditions" (Anon. 1971). This full general meaning of regular recurrence or pattern in fourth dimension may be applied to a wide variety of cyclical natural phenomena having a periodicity or frequency of annihilation from microseconds to millions of years. In the performing arts, rhythm is the timing of events on a human scale, of musical sounds and silences, of the steps of a trip the light fantastic toe, or the meter of spoken language and poetry. Rhythm may also refer to visual presentation, every bit "timed movement through space" (Jirousek 1995), and a common language of pattern unites rhythm with geometry.

In a visual composition , pattern and rhythm are generally expressed by showing consistency with colors or lines . For instance, placing a red spiral at the bottom left and top right, for example, will cause the centre to movement from one spiral, to the other, then to the space in between. The repetition of elements creates movement of the viewer 's eye and tin can, therefore, make the artwork feel active. Hilma af Klint'due south Svanen (The Swan) exemplifies the visual representation of rhythm using color and symmetry.

Hilma af Klint, Svanen (The Swan), 1914: Color and symmetry work together in this painting to guide the eye of the viewer in a particular visual rhythm.

Proportion and Scale

Proportion is a measurement of the size and quantity of elements within a composition.

Learning Objectives

Apply the concept of proportion to different works of fine art

Key Takeaways

Key Points

• Hierarchical proportion is a technique used in art, mostly in sculpture and painting, in which the artist uses unnatural proportion or scale to draw the relative importance of the figures in the artwork.
• Mathematically, proportion is the relation betwixt elements and a whole. In architecture, the whole is not merely a building but the set and setting of the site.
• Among the diverse aboriginal artistic traditions, the harmonic proportions, human proportions, cosmic orientations, diverse aspects of sacred geometry , and pocket-size whole-number ratios were all practical as part of the exercise of architectural blueprint.

Primal Terms

• golden ratio:The irrational number (approximately 1·618), usually denoted past the Greek alphabetic character φ (phi), which is equal to the sum of its own reciprocal and 1, or, equivalently, is such that the ratio of ane to the number is equal to the ratio of its reciprocal to 1. Some twentieth-century artists and architects have proportioned their works to guess this—especially in the course of the gilded rectangle, in which the ratio of the longer side to the shorter equals this number—assertive this proportion to be aesthetically pleasing.

Proportion is a measurement of the size and quantity of elements within a composition . Hierarchical proportion is a technique used in art, generally in sculpture and painting, in which the artist uses unnatural proportion or scale to describe the relative importance of the figures in the artwork. In ancient Egyptian fine art, for case, gods and important political figures appear much larger than common people. Showtime with the Renaissance , artists recognized the connection between proportion and perspective , and the illusion of 3-dimensional infinite . Images of the human body in exaggerated proportion were used to draw the reality an creative person interpreted.

Depiction of Narmer from the Narmer Palette: Narmer, a Predynastic ruler, accompanied by men carrying the standards of diverse local gods. This piece demonstrates the ancient Egyptians' use of proportion, with Narmer appearing larger than the other figures depicted.

Mathematically, proportion is the relation betwixt elements and a whole. In compages, the whole is not only a edifice just the set and setting of the site. The things that make a building and its site "well shaped" include everything from the orientation of the site and the buildings on it, to the features of the grounds on which information technology is situated. Light, shade, wind, elevation , and choice of materials all chronicle to a standard of architectural proportion.

Architecture has oftentimes used proportional systems to generate or constrain the forms considered suitable for inclusion in a building. In nigh every building tradition, there is a arrangement of mathematical relations which governs the relationships between aspects of the design. These systems of proportion are often quite simple: whole number ratios or incommensurable ratios (such as the golden ratio) were determined using geometrical methods. Mostly, the goal of a proportional system is to produce a sense of coherence and harmony amid the elements of a building.

Among the various aboriginal artistic traditions, the harmonic proportions, human proportions, cosmic orientations, various aspects of sacred geometry, and small-scale whole-number ratios were all applied as part of the practise of architectural design. For instance, the Greek classical architectural orders are all proportioned rather than dimensioned or measured modules, because the primeval modules were not based on torso parts and their spans (fingers, palms, easily, and anxiety), but rather on column diameters and the widths of arcades and fenestrations .

Temple of Portanus: The Greek Temple of Portanus is an example of classical Greek architecture with its tetrastyle portico of four Ionic columns.

Typically, one set of column bore modules used for casework and architectural moldings by the Egyptians and Romans is based on the proportions of the palm and the finger, while some other less delicate module—used for door and window trim, tile piece of work, and roofing in Mesopotamia and Greece—was based on the proportions of the manus and the pollex.

Dating dorsum to the Pythagoreans, there was an idea that proportions should be related to standards, and that the more general and formulaic the standards, the better. This concept—that at that place should exist beauty and elegance evidenced past a skillful composition of well understood elements—underlies mathematics, art, and architecture. The classical standards are a series of paired opposites designed to aggrandize the dimensional constraints of harmony and proportion.

Space

Space in art tin exist divers equally the area that exists between two identifiable points.

Learning Objectives

Define infinite in art and list ways it is employed by artists

Primal Takeaways

Key Points

• The organization of infinite is referred to as limerick and is an essential component to any work of fine art.
• The space of an artwork includes the background, foreground, and middle ground , as well every bit the distance between, around, and within things.
• At that place are two types of space: positive infinite and negative space.
• After spending hundreds of years developing linear perspective , Western artistic notions most the accurate delineation of space went through a radical shift at the beginning of the 20th century.
• Cubism and subsequent modernist movements represented an important shift in the use of space within Western fine art, which is nonetheless being felt today.

Fundamental Terms

• space:The distance or empty expanse between things.
• Cubism:An artistic motility in the early 20th century characterized by the delineation of natural forms as geometric structures of planes.

The organisation of space in fine art is referred to as limerick, and is an essential component of any piece of work of art. Infinite can exist generally defined equally the area that exists between any two identifiable points.

Space is conceived of differently in each medium . The space in a painting, for instance, includes the background, foreground and middle ground, while three-dimensional infinite, similar sculpture or installation , volition involve the distance between, around, and within points of the piece of work. Space is further categorized equally positive or negative. "Positive space" can exist defined as the subject of an artwork, while "negative infinite" tin can exist divers equally the infinite effectually the subject.

Over the ages, space has been conceived of in various means. Artists take devoted a great deal of time to experimenting with perspectives and degrees of flatness of the pictorial plane .

The perspective system has been a highly employed convention in Western art. Visually, it is an illusionist phenomenon, well suited to realism and the depiction of reality as it appears. After spending hundreds of years developing linear perspective, Western artistic conventions about the accurate depiction of space went through a radical shift at the outset of the 20th century. The innovations of Cubism and subsequent modernist movements represented an important shift in the use of space within Western art, the affect of which is all the same being felt.

Pablo Picasso, Les Demoiselles d'Avignon, 1907: Les Demoiselles d'Avignon is an example of cubist art, which has a tendency to flatten the moving-picture show airplane, and its use of abstract shapes and irregular forms suggest multiple points of view within a single image.

Two-Dimensional Space

Two-dimensional, or bi-dimensional, infinite is a geometric model of the planar projection of the physical universe in which we live.

Learning Objectives

Discuss two-dimensional space in art and the physical properties on which it is based

Key Takeaways

Cardinal Points

• In concrete terms, dimension refers to the constituent structure of all space and its position in fourth dimension.
• Drawing is a grade of visual art that makes use of any number of instruments to mark a 2-dimensional medium .
• Almost whatever dimensional grade can be represented by some combination of the cube, sphere, cylinder, and cone. Once these basic shapes have been assembled into a likeness, and so the drawing tin can be refined into a more than authentic and polished form.

Key Terms

• dimension:A unmarried aspect of a given affair. A measure of spatial extent in a particular management, such as summit, width or breadth, or depth.
• Two-Dimensional:Existing in two dimensions. Not creating the illusion of depth.
• Planar:Of or pertaining to a aeroplane. Flat, two-dimensional.

Ii dimensional, or bi-dimensional, space is a geometric model of the planar project of the physical universe in which we alive. The two dimensions are commonly chosen length and width. Both directions prevarication on the aforementioned plane . In physics, our bi-dimensional space is viewed equally a planar representation of the space in which nosotros movement.

Mathematical depiction of bi-dimensional space: Bi-dimensional Cartesian coordinate arrangement.

In fine art composition , drawing is a class of visual art that makes use of any number of drawing instruments to marker a two-dimensional medium (meaning that the object does not take depth). One of the simplest and near efficient means of communicating visual ideas, the medium has been a popular and fundamental means of public expression throughout human history. Additionally, the relative availability of basic drawing instruments makes cartoon more universal than most other media.

Measuring the dimensions of a discipline while blocking in the drawing is an important step in producing a realistic rendition of a subject. Tools such as a compass can be used to measure the angles of different sides. These angles tin can be reproduced on the drawing surface and and then rechecked to make sure they are accurate. Another course of measurement is to compare the relative sizes of different parts of the subject with each other. A finger placed at a point along the cartoon implement tin can be used to compare that dimension with other parts of the image. A ruler can be used both as a straightedge and a device to compute proportions. When attempting to draw a complicated shape such as a homo figure, it is helpful at offset to represent the form with a set of archaic shapes.

Near any dimensional form can be represented past some combination of the cube, sphere, cylinder, and cone. Once these basic shapes take been assembled into a likeness, and then the cartoon tin be refined into a more accurate and polished form. The lines of the archaic shapes are removed and replaced by the final likeness. A more refined art of effigy cartoon relies upon the creative person possessing a deep understanding of anatomy and the human proportions. A trained artist is familiar with the skeleton structure, joint location, musculus placement, tendon movement, and how the different parts work together during movement. This allows the artist to render more than natural poses that do non announced artificially stiff. The artist is as well familiar with how the proportions vary depending on the historic period of the subject, especially when drawing a portrait.

Cartoon human figures: Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec's Madame Palmyre with Her Domestic dog, 1897.

Linear Perspective and Three-Dimensional Infinite

Perspective is an gauge representation on a flat surface of an image as information technology is seen by the middle.

Learning Objectives

Explicate perspective and its touch on art composition

Key Takeaways

Fundamental Points

• Systematic attempts to evolve a system of perspective are usually considered to have begun around the 5th century B.C. in the fine art of Aboriginal Greece.
• The earliest art paintings and drawings typically sized objects and characters hierarchically co-ordinate to their spiritual or thematic importance, not their distance from the viewer .
• In Medieval Europe, the use and sophistication of attempts to convey distance increased steadily but without a basis in a systematic theory.
• By the Renaissance , nearly every creative person in Italy used geometrical perspective in their paintings, both to portray depth and likewise equally a new and "of the moment" compositional method.

Key Terms

• curvilinear:Having bends; curved; formed past curved lines.
• horizon line:A horizontal line in perspective drawing, direct contrary the viewer'south centre and often implied, that represents objects infinitely far abroad and determines the angle or perspective from which the viewer sees the piece of work.
• vanishing point:The point in a perspective cartoon at which parallel lines receding from an observer seem to converge.
• Perspective:The technique of representing 3-dimensional objects on a ii-dimensional surface.

In fine art, perspective is an approximate representation on a apartment surface of an image as it is seen past the eye, calculated past bold a particular vanishing point . Systematic attempts to evolve a system of perspective are unremarkably considered to have begun around the 5th century BCE in the fine art of Ancient Greece. By the afterwards periods of artifact , artists—especially those in less popular traditions—were well aware that distant objects could be shown smaller than those shut at hand for increased illusionism. Merely whether this convention was actually used in a work depended on many factors. Some of the paintings plant in the ruins of Pompeii prove a remarkable realism and perspective for their time.

The earliest art paintings and drawings typically sized objects and characters hierarchically according to their spiritual or thematic importance, not their distance from the viewer. The most important figures are oftentimes shown equally the highest in a limerick , likewise from hieratic motives, leading to the "vertical perspective" common in the art of Ancient Egypt , where a group of "nearer" figures are shown below the larger figure(south).

The art of the Migration Period had no tradition of attempting compositions of large numbers of figures, and Early Medieval art was ho-hum and inconsistent in relearning the convention from classical models, though the process can be seen underway in Carolingian fine art. European Medieval artists were aware of the general principle of varying the relative size of elements according to distance, and use and sophistication of attempts to convey distance increased steadily during the period, only without a basis in a systematic theory.

By the Renaissance, even so, about every artist in Italy used geometrical perspective in their paintings. Not only was this utilize of perspective a way to portray depth, but information technology was also a new method of composing a painting. Paintings began to show a single, unified scene, rather than a combination of several. For a while, perspective remained the domain of Florence. Gradually, and partly through the motility of academies of the arts, the Italian techniques became part of the training of artists beyond Europe and, later, other parts of the world.

Perspective in Renaissance Painting: Pietro Perugino's usage of perspective in this fresco at the Sistine Chapel (1481–82) helped bring the Renaissance to Rome.

A drawing has one-point perspective when it contains merely one vanishing signal on the horizon line . This blazon of perspective is typically used for images of roads, railway tracks, hallways, or buildings viewed so that the forepart is direct facing the viewer. Any objects that are made up of lines either directly parallel with the viewer'south line of sight or straight perpendicular (the railroad slats) can be represented with i-indicate perspective. These parallel lines converge at the vanishing signal.

Two-point perspective can be used to draw the same objects equally one-point perspective, merely rotated—such as looking at the corner of a house, or looking at two forked roads shrink into the distance. In looking at a firm from the corner, for instance, 1 wall would recede towards one vanishing point and the other wall would recede towards the opposite vanishing point.

3-bespeak perspective is used for buildings depicted from higher up or below. In add-on to the two vanishing points from before, one for each wall, there is now a third one for how those walls recede into the basis . This third vanishing indicate would be beneath the ground.

Four-point perspective is the curvilinear variant of two-point perspective. The resulting elongated frame can be used both horizontally and vertically. Similar all other foreshortened variants of perspective, four-point perspective starts off with a horizon line, followed by four equally spaced vanishing points to delineate four vertical lines. Because vanishing points exist only when parallel lines are present in the scene, a perspective with no vanishing points ("zero-bespeak") occurs if the viewer is observing a non-rectilinear scene. The almost common example of a nonlinear scene is a natural scene (east.g., a mountain range), which frequently does not comprise whatever parallel lines. A perspective without vanishing points tin can still create a sense of depth.

Distortions of Space and Foreshortening

Distortion is used to create various representations of infinite in two-dimensional works of art.

Learning Objectives

Identify how distortion is both employed and avoided in works of art

Key Takeaways

Key Points

• Perspective projection distortion is the inevitable misrepresentation of 3-dimensional infinite when drawn or "projected" onto a two-dimensional surface. It is impossible to accurately depict 3-dimensional reality on a two-dimensional airplane .
• However, there are several constructs available which allow for seemingly accurate representation. Perspective projection can be used to mirror how the center sees by the employ of one or more than vanishing points .
• Although distortion tin can be irregular or follow many patterns, the most usually encountered distortions in composition , especially in photography, are radially symmetric, or approximately so, arising from the symmetry of a photographic lens.

Key Terms

• radial:Bundled like rays that radiate from, or converge into, a mutual center
• projection:The prototype that a translucent object casts onto another object.
• foreshortening:A technique for creating the appearance that the object of a drawing is extending into infinite by shortening the lines with which that object is fatigued.

A baloney is the amending of the original shape (or other characteristic) of an object, image, audio, or other course of data or representation. Baloney can be wanted or unwanted past the artist. Distortion is usually unwanted when it concerns physical degradation of a work. However, it is more normally referred to in terms of perspective, where information technology is employed to create realistic representations of space in ii-dimensional works of art.

Perspective Project Distortion

Perspective project baloney is the inevitable misrepresentation of three-dimensional infinite when fatigued or "projected" onto a 2-dimensional surface. It is impossible to accurately depict three-dimensional reality on a ii-dimensional plane. However, there are several constructs available that permit for seemingly accurate representation. The virtually common of these is perspective projection. Perspective projection can be used to mirror how the eye sees by making use of 1 or more vanishing points.

Giotto, Lamentation (The Mourning of Christ), 1305–1306: Giotto is one of the well-nigh notable pre-Renaissance artists to recognize distortion on 2-dimensional planes.

Foreshortening

Foreshortening is the visual consequence or optical illusion that causes an object or altitude to appear shorter than information technology really is because it is angled toward the viewer . Although foreshortening is an important element in art where visual perspective is being depicted, foreshortening occurs in other types of ii-dimensional representations of three-dimensional scenes, such equally oblique parallel projection drawings.

The physiological basis of visual foreshortening was undefined until the yr grand when the Arabian mathematician and philosopher, Alhazen, in his Perspectiva, showtime explained that light projects conically into the middle. A method for presenting foreshortened geometry systematically onto a plane surface was unknown for another 300 years. The artist Giotto may have been the beginning to recognize that the paradigm beheld by the heart is distorted: to the eye, parallel lines appear to intersect (like the distant edges of a path or road), whereas in "undistorted" nature, they do not. In many of Giotto's paintings, perspective is employed to reach various baloney furnishings.

Foreshortening: This painting illustrates Melozzo da Forlì'south usage of upward foreshortening in his frescoes at The Basilica della Santa Casa.

Distortion in Photography

In photography, the project mechanism is light reflected from an object. To execute a drawing using perspective projection, projectors emanate from all points of an object and intersect at a station point. These projectors intersect with an imaginary aeroplane of projection and an image is created on the plane by the points of intersection. The resulting image on the project airplane reproduces the prototype of the object equally information technology is beheld from the station point.

Radial distortion can usually be classified equally i of two main types: barrel distortion and pincushion baloney. Barrel baloney occurs when image magnification decreases with distance from the optical centrality. The apparent effect is that of an prototype which has been mapped around a sphere (or butt). Fisheye lenses, which take hemispherical views, utilize this type of distortion as a fashion to map an infinitely wide object plane into a finite image expanse.

On the other hand, in pincushion distortion, the paradigm magnification increases with the distance from the optical axis. The visible effect is that lines that do not go through the middle of the image are bowed inwards, towards the middle of the epitome, like a pincushion. A certain amount of pincushion distortion is ofttimes found with visual optical instruments (i.e., binoculars), where it serves to eliminate the world upshot.

Cylindrical perspective is a form of baloney caused by fisheye and panoramic lenses, which reproduce straight horizontal lines above and below the lens centrality level as curved, while reproducing directly horizontal lines on lens axis level as straight. This is as well a common feature of wide-bending anamorphic lenses of less than 40mm focal length in cinematography. Essentially it is just barrel baloney, only merely in the horizontal plane. It is an artifact of the squeezing process that anamorphic lenses do to fit widescreen images onto standard-width picture.

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Source: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-arthistory/chapter/visual-elements/

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